Karate Essays - Shrin-ry, Tatsuo Shimabuku, Isshin-ry,

Karate Outline Thesis Statement: Isshinryu may be the youngest karate to come from Okinawa, but it is as rich with spirit as the earlier forms. I. Background on Isshinryu founder. A. Birth date and location. B. Teachers and influence C. Creation II. Description of Emblem and patch. A. Origin B. Explanation and meaning C. Symbolism III. Kata A. Brief overview B. History C. Explanation D. Benefits IV. Ranking sytem A. Kyu ranks B. Dan ranks C. Promotion requirements Isshinryu Karate was developed and introduced in 1954 by Tatsuo Shimabuku on the island of Okinawa. His karate was the offspring of two different systems, Goju-Ryu and Shorin-Ryu. Goju-Ryu being the ?Hard? method, and Shorin-Ryu being the ?Soft? method. He introduced katas from other forms into his own form, and developed features unique to his newly created style. The ranking system, also unique to his style, was made up of 7 kyu ranks and 10 degrees of black belts. A vision Shimabuku had in a dream also played a major role in the development of his style. The vision that helped him ?mold? his karate into one form is represented on a patch presently worn on the gi?s of his followers and their students. Isshinryu may be the youngest karate to come from Okinawa, but it is as rich with spirit as the earlier forms. Shinkichi Shimabuku, founder of Isshinryu, was born on the island of Okinawa on September 19, 1908 (Armstrong 7). Upon reaching the age of six, Shimabuku would travel on foot, six miles down an old farm road to reach his uncle?s house. His uncle, Chioyu, a Shorin-ryu Master, was reluctant to teach young Shimibuku. Instead, Chioyu made him perform menial chores around the dojo. After two years of chores and six mile walks, Shimabuku developed the patients and physical condition to begin karate training. His uncle taught Shimabuku his system and started him off on his martial career. During his years of adolescence Shimabuku changes his name from Shinkichi to Tatsuo meaning ?Dragon Boy?. It was common during the 1920?s for a young boy to change his name during his adolescence years. With the motivation from his uncle, Shimabuku sought out the famous Chotoku Kyan, another Shorin-ryu master. After developing an excellent kicking ability, his next sensei was Chojin Miyagi! , known for his vigorous training habits. Miyagi teaches Shimabuku Naha-te, known today as the Goju-ryu style. His fourth teacher was a man by the name of Motobu, a famous brawler in Okinawa. Motobu furthers Shimabuku?s in Shorin-ryu and grants him the title of Master (8). Lastly, Yabiku Moden, helps polish Shimabuku?s training by teaching him the art of the Bo, Sai, and Tee-fa (9). With the teachings of some of Okinawa?s legendary teachers, Tatsuo Shimabuku sets of to begin a life in the martial arts. Late one evening at his home in Chun Village, Shimabuku was awakened by his dream of the ?Mizu-gami?, the sea goddess. With this symbol, Tatsuo realizes the unification of his training that the Mizu-gami represents. It was on that evening that Isshinryu was born (Armstrong 27). Later, his vision was produced on a patch worn by all students of Isshinryu Karate. The emblem of Isshinryu karate symbolizes the Mizu-gami. Its oval shape was originally designed to represent the unique vertical fist in Isshinryu karate. The symbol depicts a woman whose lower half appears to take the form of a sea dragon. Her left hand is held open in the universal sign of peace while her right hand forms an Isshinryu fist. In Oriental mythology, the dragon in the sky is a sign of good luck while the gray background and churning seas is a sign of unknown dangers. Three stars are located at the top of the emblem representing three virtues. These virtues consist of mind, body, and spirit whic! h all must be developed to reach total harmony (Tyurin). With this vision and sensei?s knowledge of the martial arts, he sets off to create the Isshinryu system. What would a martial arts system be without Kata? According to the Martial Arts Dictionary, by Louis Frederic, the word ?kata? is defined as Form?, ?Sequence, but there is much more to kata than form and sequence (104). To really grasp the meaning of kata, the true essence of karate, one must be involved in one or more forms of the martial arts. In the Isshinryu system there are 16 katas: 1. Seisan 9.Kusan-Ku Sai 2. Seiuchin 10. Tokomen Karate Essays - Shrin-ry, Tatsuo Shimabuku, Isshin-ry, Karate Outline Thesis Statement: Isshinryu may be the youngest karate to come from Okinawa, but it is as rich with spirit as the earlier forms. I. Background on Isshinryu founder. A. Birth date and location. B. Teachers and influence C. Creation II. Description of Emblem and patch. A. Origin B. Explanation and meaning C. Symbolism III. Kata A. Brief overview B. History C. Explanation D. Benefits IV. Ranking sytem A. Kyu ranks B. Dan ranks C. Promotion requirements Isshinryu Karate was developed and introduced in 1954 by Tatsuo Shimabuku on the island of Okinawa. His karate was the offspring of two different systems, Goju-Ryu and Shorin-Ryu. Goju-Ryu being the ?Hard? method, and Shorin-Ryu being the ?Soft? method. He introduced katas from other forms into his own form, and developed features unique to his newly created style. The ranking system, also unique to his style, was made up of 7 kyu ranks and 10 degrees of black belts. A vision Shimabuku had in a dream also played a major role in the development of his style. The vision that helped him ?mold? his karate into one form is represented on a patch presently worn on the gi?s of his followers and their students. Isshinryu may be the youngest karate to come from Okinawa, but it is as rich with spirit as the earlier forms. Shinkichi Shimabuku, founder of Isshinryu, was born on the island of Okinawa on September 19, 1908 (Armstrong 7). Upon reaching the age of six, Shimabuku would travel on foot, six miles down an old farm road to reach his uncle?s house. His uncle, Chioyu, a Shorin-ryu Master, was reluctant to teach young Shimibuku. Instead, Chioyu made him perform menial chores around the dojo. After two years of chores and six mile walks, Shimabuku developed the patients and physical condition to begin karate training. His uncle taught Shimabuku his system and started him off on his martial career. During his years of adolescence Shimabuku changes his name from Shinkichi to Tatsuo meaning ?Dragon Boy?. It was common during the 1920?s for a young boy to change his name during his adolescence years. With the motivation from his uncle, Shimabuku sought out the famous Chotoku Kyan, another Shorin-ryu master. After developing an excellent kicking ability, his next sensei was Chojin Miyagi! , known for his vigorous training habits. Miyagi teaches Shimabuku Naha-te, known today as the Goju-ryu style. His fourth teacher was a man by the name of Motobu, a famous brawler in Okinawa. Motobu furthers Shimabuku?s in Shorin-ryu and grants him the title of Master (8). Lastly, Yabiku Moden, helps polish Shimabuku?s training by teaching him the art of the Bo, Sai, and Tee-fa (9). With the teachings of some of Okinawa?s legendary teachers, Tatsuo Shimabuku sets of to begin a life in the martial arts. Late one evening at his home in Chun Village, Shimabuku was awakened by his dream of the ?Mizu-gami?, the sea goddess. With this symbol, Tatsuo realizes the unification of his training that the Mizu-gami represents. It was on that evening that Isshinryu was born (Armstrong 27). Later, his vision was produced on a patch worn by all students of Isshinryu Karate. The emblem of Isshinryu karate symbolizes the Mizu-gami. Its oval shape was originally designed to represent the unique vertical fist in Isshinryu karate. The symbol depicts a woman whose lower half appears to take the form of a sea dragon. Her left hand is held open in the universal sign of peace while her right hand forms an Isshinryu fist. In Oriental mythology, the dragon in the sky is a sign of good luck while the gray background and churning seas is a sign of unknown dangers. Three stars are located at the top of the emblem representing three virtues. These virtues consist of mind, body, and spirit whic! h all must be developed to reach total harmony (Tyurin). With this vision and sensei?s knowledge of the martial arts, he sets off to create the Isshinryu system. What would a martial arts system be without Kata? According to the Martial Arts Dictionary, by Louis Frederic, the word ?kata? is defined as Form?, ?Sequence, but there is much more to kata than form and sequence (104). To really grasp the meaning of kata, the true essence of karate, one must be involved in one or more forms of the martial arts. In the Isshinryu system there are 16 katas: 1. Seisan 9.Kusan-Ku Sai 2. Seiuchin 10. Tokomen

Band-Aid Essay Example

Band Band-Aid Essay Band-Aid Essay Essay Topic: A Very Old Man With Enormous Wings The House Of the Seven Gables Places Siem Reap  (literally â€Å"Siam Defeated†) is undoubtedly Cambodia’s fastest growing city and serves as a small charming gateway town to the world famous destination of the Angkor temples. Thanks to those Cambodia attractions, Siem Reap has transformed itself into a major tourist hub. It is laid-back and a pleasant place to stay while touring the temples. Siem Reap offers a wide  range of hotels, ranging from several 5-star hotels to hundreds of budget guesthouses while a large selection of restaurants offer many kinds of food.Preah Vihear is a Khmer temple situated atop a 525 meter (1,722 ft) cliff in the Dangrek Mountains, on the border between Cambodia and Thailand. It has the most spectacular setting of all the Khmer temples. Most of the temple was constructed in the 11th and 12th century during the reigns of the Khmer kings Suryavarman I and Suryavarman II. It was dedicated to the Hindu god Shiva. Preah Vihear is the subject of a long-running territoria l dispute between Thailand and Cambodia, and several soldiers were killed in clashes in 2009.Sihanoukville, also known as Kampong Som, is a port city and beach resort on the Gulf of Thailand. The big attraction here are the white-sand beaches and several undeveloped tropical islands. Sihanoukville is a good place to relax and unwind, though be prepared to battle the crows during the high season or a holiday weekend. Angkor is the greatest attraction in Cambodia and one of the most spectacular ancient sites on earth,  Angkor  is a vast temple complex featuring the remains of several capitals of the Khmer Empire, from the 9th to the 15th century AD.These include the famous Angkor Wat temple, the world’s largest single religious monument, the Bayon temple (at Angkor Thom) with its multitude of massive stone faces and Ta Prohm, a Buddhist temple ruin entwined with towering trees. Banteay Srei Although officially part of the Angkor complex, Banteay Srei lies 25 km (15 miles) n orth-east of the main group of temples, enough to list it as a separate Cambodia attraction here. The temple was completed in 967 AD and is built largely of red sandstone, a medium that lends itself to the elaborate decorative wall carvings which are still clearly visible today.Banteay Srei is the only major temple at Angkor not built for a king, instead it was constructed by one of king Rajendravarman’s counselors, Yajnyavahara. Koh Ker was the capital of the Khmer empire for a very brief period from the year 928 to 944 AD. In this short time some very spectacular buildings and immense sculptures were constructed. The site is dominated by Prasat Thom, a 30 meter (98 ft) tall temple pyramid rising high above the surrounding jungle. A giant Garuda (mythical half-man, half-bird creature), carved into the stone blocks, still guard the very top, although its partially covered now.Left to the jungle for nearly a millennium, Koh Ker was one of Cambodia’s most remote and inac cessible temple destinations. This has now changed thanks to recent de-mining and the opening of a new toll road. Crafts Indigenous people represent 1. 4 percent of the total population in Cambodia, and the majority of them live in remote rural areas within the country. Often referred to as highlanders, their ways of life are different from the lowlanders, both from the cultural and economic perspective.Handicrafts are part of their traditional culture and their livelihood as they produce textiles, baskets, jars, pottery, and other tools for their daily use. Many indigenous groups have established small enterprises and produce traditional products to generate supplementary income in order to support their livelihood. The handicraft sector provides vital employment opportunities to most indigenous artisans and disadvantaged people, especially women who are struggling for survival. Silk weaving in Cambodia dates to as early as the first century since textiles were used for trading.Mod ern textiles have traces of motifs imitating clothing details on ancient stone sculptures. There are two main types of Cambodian weaving: 1. ikat technique (Khmer term: chongkiet) To create patterns, weavers tie and dye portions of weft yarn before weaving begins. Patterns are diverse and vary by region; common motifs include lattice, stars, and spots. 2. uneven twill It yields single or two-color fabrics, which are produced by weaving three threads so that the color of one thread dominates on one side of the fabric, while the two others determine the color on the reverse side. Traditionally, Cambodian textiles have employed natural dyes coming from: a. insect nests Red dye b. indigo Blue dye c. prohut bark- Yellow and Green dye d. ebony bark- Black dye Cambodias modern silk-weaving centers are Takeo, Battambang, BeanteayMeanchey, Siem Reap, and Kampot provinces. Silk-weaving has been revived in the past ten years and now provides employment for many rural women. Cambodian silk is generally sold domestically, where it is used in sampot (wrap skirts), furnishings, and pidan (pictoral tapestries).Now, it has seen an increase in export viability. Cotton textiles have also played a significant role in Cambodian culture. Though today, Cambodia imports most of its cotton, traditionally woven cotton remains popular. Rural women often weave homemade cotton fabric, which is used in garments and for household purposes. Krama, the traditional check scarves worn almost universally by Cambodians, are made of cotton. INDONESIA Places Bali  is one of the world’s most popular island destinations and one which consistently wins travel awards.The varied landscape, rugged coastlines, tropical beaches, lush rice terraces and volcanic hillsides all provide a picturesque backdrop to its colorful, deeply spiritual and unique Hindu culture. The combination of friendly people, a magnificently visual culture infused with spirituality and spectacular beaches with great surf ing and diving have made Bali the unrivaled number one tourist attraction in Indonesia. Borubudur is located 40 km (25 miles) northwest of  Yogyakarta  on Java, the Borobudur is the one of the most famous Buddhist temple in the world.The Borobudur was built over a period of some 75 years in the 8th and 9th centuries by the kingdom of Sailendra, out of an estimated 2 million blocks of stone. It was abandoned in the 14th century for reasons that still remain a mystery and for centuries lay hidden in the jungle under layers of volcanic ash. Today it is one of the most popular tourist attractions in Indonesia. Lombok’s most popular tourist destination, the Gili Islands are an archipelago of three small islands:  Gili Trawangan, Gili Meno and Gili Air.The islands are very relaxed and laid-back, with countless little beachside cafes still playing reggae and no cars or motorbikes to disturb the peace. Note that the name â€Å"Gili Islands† is rather redundant as gili si mply means â€Å"small island† in Sasak and there are many other islands around the coast of Lombok with Gili in their names. Torajaland (Tana Toraja) is a highland region of South Sulawesi, home of the Toraja people. Torajans are famous for their massive peaked-roof houses known as tongkonan and spectacular but gruesome funeral rites.After a person’s death, the body is kept – often for several years – until the actual funeral ceremony which can last for several days. The deceased is then finally buried in a small cave or in a hollow tree. Gunung Bromo is an active volcano and part of the Tengger massif, in East Java. At 2,329 meters (7,641 feet) it is not the highest peak of the massif, but it is the most well known. The area is one of the most visited tourist attractions in Indonesia and Java. The top of the volcano has been blown off and the crater inside constantly belches white smoke.It is surrounded by the Sea of Sand of fine volcanic sand. The over all effect is unsettlingly unearthly. Crafts The fabric most common to both countries is the Batik. The term â€Å"batik† is an Indonesian Malay word, believed to be related to the Malay word â€Å"titik†, which means ‘point’, ‘dot’ or ‘drop’. The â€Å"drop† action refers to the process of dyeing the fabric by making use of a resist technique: covering areas of cloth with a dye-resistant substance (usually hot wax) to prevent them from absorbing colors. This technique is has been taught for over a thousand years.Shadow Puppetry is famous in Indonesia. Wayang, in modern Indonesian language means show or perform. Kulit means skin, a reference to the leather material that the figures are carved out of. Others say that wayang is also attributed to the Indonesian word bayang which means shadow. Wayang Kulit–is a type of puppet shadow play performed around the Indo-Malayan archipelago, tracing its origins to India. It is derived from a Javanese Hindu-Buddhist tradition, where hand-crafted leather puppets depict epic stories of the gods in shadow play.A traditional Gamelan orchestra would accompany the story-telling. The puppets are moved behind a cotton or linen screen by a Dalang, or apuppetmasterin a shadow puppet play. The Dalang tells the story, interprets and voices each character, producing sound effects with speech and movement and manipulates all the figures between the lamp and the screen to bring the shadows to life. Most shadow play is based on two epic stories from India the Mahabharata and the Ramayana. The Balinese and Javanese have combined the Hindu stories with Buddhist and Muslim ideas mixed with their own folklore. MYANMAR PlacesThe  Shwedagon Pagoda;officially titled  Shwedagon Zedi Daw, also known in  English  as the  Great Dagon Pagoda  and theGolden Pagoda, is a 99 metres (325  ft) gilded  pagoda  and  stupa  located in  Yangon,  Burma. Bagan, in the past which was known as Pagan, is the place where the heart of the country ancient architecture lies. It is located in the upper part of Myanmar and is the capital of Myanmar’s first dynasty. Pagodas can be found mostly covered in reddish color and religious monuments which were built more than 1,500 years ago and it can be said that Bagan, is the most memorable place for visitors coming to Myanmar.Golden Rock, in Myanmar language known as KyiteHteeYoe Pagoda is one of the breath-taking and also a sacred place for Myanmar people. It is located in Mon State and perched on the highest mountain of Paunglaung mountain range. Ngapali is located in Rakhine State and stretches along the Bay of Bengal and it lies in Rakhine State of Myanmar. Ngapali is said to be one of the best beaches in Myanmar where most natural are untouched where visitors can enjoy the true nature of the beach itself. It is famous for its natural and unspotted beauty up to this day. MALAYSIA PlacesThe Petronas Twin Towers in  Kuala Lumpur  were the world’s tallest buildings before being surpassed in 2004 by Taipei 101. However, the towers are still the tallest twin buildings in the world. The 88-floor towers are constructed largely of reinforced concrete, with a steel and glass facade designed to resemble motifs found in Islamic art, a reflection of Malaysia’s Muslim religion. The Petronas Twin Towers feature a sky bridge between the two towers on the 41st and 42nd floors. The Sultan Ahmad Shah State Mosque is Pahangs state mosque. It is located in Kuantan, Pahang, Malaysia.The  Mulu Caves  are located in the Gunung Mulu National Park in Malaysian Borneo. The park encompasses incredible caves and karst formations in a mountainous equatorial rainforest setting. The Sarawak chamber found in one of the underground caves is the largest cave chamber in the world. It has been said that the chamber is so big that it could accommodate about 40 Boeing 747s, without overlappi ng their wings. The  Perhentian Islands  are the must-go place in Malaysia for budget travelers. They have some of the world’s most beautiful beaches and great diving with plenty of  cheap accommodation.The two main islands are Perhentian Besar (â€Å"Big Perhentian†) and Perhentian Kecil (â€Å"Small Perhentian†). Both the islands have palm-fringed white sandy beaches and turquoise blue sea. Crafts Wau Kite in Malay is a uniquely designed Malaysian kite called Wau. This kite-making tradition comes naturally to Malaysian people, especially in the Eastern States of the Malayan Peninsula. Farmers used kites as scarecrows in the fields and as a means to lull their children to sleep, so they could work with little interruption. THAILAND Places Ayuthaya  was founded in 1350 AD by King U Thong as the second capital of Siam after Sukhothai.Throughout the centuries, the ideal location between China, India and the Malay Archipelago made Ayutthaya the trading capi tal of Asia. The city was re-founded a few kilometers to the east of the ruins, which now form the Ayutthaya historical park. Most of the remains are temples and palaces, as those were the only buildings made of stone at that time. Ko Phi Phi is a small archipelago in the Krabi Province in Southern Thailand. Ko Phi Phi Don  is the largest island of the group, and is the only island with permanent inhabitants while the smaller Ko Phi Phi Leh is very popular as a beach or dive excursion.Chiang Mai  is one of the top Thailand attractions. The famous Night Bazaar sprawls along several city blocks along footpaths, inside buildings and temple grounds. It has handicrafts, arts, clothing and and imported products of all descriptions, and a number of large, well-appointed modern shopping centers. At first, the market was owned by Chinese merchants, but since it grew in size as more commercial buildings were built, it was no longer owned by a single group of people. Crafts WoodcarvingBeau tiful hardwoods have long been used by the craftsmen not only to bedeck wats and homes, but also to fashion charming carriages, palanquins, barges and elephant howdahs. Wood is used to make an array of domestic items. Royal throne and barges are graceful examples of the art of woodcarving. The doors, windows and gables of the temples feature delicate and unique designs. Lacquerware Chiang Mai is known for fine lacquerware. Conventionally, black resin of Lak tree is used to make it. The resin is applied to the base of bamboo or teak, adorned with designs made from natural pigments.However, commercial producers use different techniques. Ceramics Ceramics articles were first developed in Thailand in the Sukhothai era. Glazed green-blue celadon was most famous among these. Then crude but colorful ceramics made in Ayutthaya became popular. The Chinese made ceramics with Thai patterns and exported them to Siam, the then Thailand. The designs incorporated images from Hindu and Buddhist myt hology, as well as flower motifs. Thai Silk The skill of silkworm raising probably came to Thailand from China.Silk of north east Thailand, with its peculiar texture and iridescent colors, has been a traditional folk craft, specially of village women. They raise silkworms, spin and dye the threads, and then weave the fabric of handlooms. The dazzling cloth manufactured by them has always been the prized possession of the nobility. Silverware Silverware has been a popular craft in Thailand, particularly in Chiang Mai region. The products incorporate many styles, including flame and floral patterns as well as Buddhist images and mythical figures. The silversmiths were held with reverence in the society.Nielloware This special metalwork is used to adorn betel boxes, trays, vases and other small boxes. It is an ancient art of applying an amalgam of metals to carved portions of gold or selver objects against black backgrounds or vice versa. The Thais learned this art from India. LAOS Pla ces Located in  Vientiane, Pha That Luang (â€Å"Great Stupa in Lao†) is one of the most significant monument in Laos. The stupa has several terraces with each level representing a different stage of Buddhist enlightenment. The lowest level represents the material world; the highest level represents the world of nothingness.The  Mekong  is Southeast Asia’s greatest river with an estimated length of 4,350 km (2,703 miles). Laos actually has the greatest share of the Mekong River. With few good roads and mountainous terrain, the river is Laos’ principal transportation. The Upper Mekong in Laos is considered one of the most stunning journeys of the entire river. Vang Vieng  is a riverside town, located in central Laos about a 4 hour bus ride north of the capital. The main street is full of guest houses, bars, restaurants, internet cafes, tour agencies, and tourists.The area’s main attraction is the dramatic karst hill landscape surrounding Vang Vieng . Crafts In this country, they make paper by hand in the wider region for over 700 years using the bark of the local sa or mulberry tree. The bark is crushed and soaked in water until it dissolves into a paste. The liquid is then scooped out, poured through a bamboo sieve and finally placed in a thin layer on a bamboo bed and dried in the sun. Traditionally sa paper was used for calligraphy and for making festive temple decorations, umbrellas, fans, and kites.In former times it was also used as a filter in the manufacture of lacquerware. VIETNAM Places With seven stories, the Thien Mu Pagoda in  Hue  is the tallest pagoda in Vietnam. The pagoda overlooks the Perfume River and is regarded as the unofficial symbol of the former imperial capital. The temple was built in 1601 during the rule of the Nguy? n Lords. The initial temple was very simply constructed, but over time it was redeveloped and expanded with more intricate features. Ha Long Bay is situated in north Vietnam round a 120 kilometer long coast line and is literally translated as â€Å"Bay of Descending Dragons†.The top tourist attraction in Vietnam,  Ha Long Bay  features thousands of islands, each topped with thick jungle vegetation, forming a spectacular seascape of limestone pillars. Several of the islands are hollow, with enormous caves, others islands include lakes and some support floating villages of fishermen. Nha Trang  is Vietnam’s most popular seaside resort town located along the second most beautiful bays in the country. It features beautiful beaches with fine and clean sand and clear ocean water with mild temperatures.The city has about 300,000 inhabitants and is more lively and urban in character than other beach destinations like Mui Ne and Phu Quoc. It’s also the scuba diving center of Vietnam. Crafts Vietnamese silk painting is one of the most popular forms of art in Vietnam, favored for the mystical atmosphere that can be achieved with the medium. Dur ing the 19th and 20th centuries, French influence was absorbed into Vietnamese art and the liberal and modern use of color especially began to differentiate Vietnamese silk paintings from their Chinese or Japanese counterparts.Vietnamese silk paintings typically showcase the countryside, landscapes, pagodas, historical events, or scenes of daily life. SINGAPORE Places Merlion Park  is located at One Fullerton,  Singapore  near the Central Business District (CBD) area of Singapore. This park is a popular tourist attraction. There are two structures of the  Merlion  located at the park with one standing at 8. 6 metres which is the original Merlion statue and a 2-metre tall Merlion cub located just behind the original statue.The park is also a major tourist attraction and a landmark of Singapore. Beaches of Sentosa This sun-kissed route begins at Sentosa Island’s westernmost beach, Siloso, and ends at its easternmost, Tanjong Beach. For proponents of barefoot running, this route is one of the few in Singapore that allows for a shoeless jog. For those who think that is an open invitation for injuries, a jogging track runs parallel to the beaches. Frequently littered with beautiful bodies, this route is also the best for people-watching or showing off.

Campaigns and Givenchy Shops in London Coursework

Campaigns and Givenchy Shops in London - Coursework Example The Bettina blouse was the standout design; it was white in color and was named after Bettina Graziani. The shirt can be found in one of the Gruaus paintings. His first design awarded him an instant success with praises from the New York Times magazine and L Album du Figaro. The Givenchy brand attracted the famous models of the day, for example; Dorian Leigh, Suzy Parker and Ivy Nicholson. Hubert de Givenchy created exciting innovations like "shirting" to design his casual and chic collections. In the year 1954, Givenchy introduced the shirt dress and a clothing line known as Givenchy university. But, before signing for this collection, he brought back all the shares of the fashion house from Loius Fontaine. In the 1950s, Hubert de Givenchy collaborated with Cristobal Balenciaga to take their collections to New York. In the year 1957, they introduced the sack dress and in 1958, they launched the baby doll and coats line. The house of Givenchy changed location and moved closer to Balenciaga in Avenue George V area. They jointly worked together to avoid any price dictates on their products. The seventies were the period when the house of Givenchy started to expand as a fashion house. They introduced Gentleman Givenchy, the fashion line for the male population. The boutique was opened in November the year 1969 at Avenue George V; the designs were appealing as they were up to date. Later that year, Givenchy came up with the short dress.Cristobal Balenciaga advised Givenchy to develop his licenses; this move was meant to protect his haute couture collections. 1971 saw Givenchy design embroidered coats in the honor of Joan Miro and Georges Braque. They also diversified their activities to desi gn; jewelry, shoes, ties, kimonos, tableware and upholstery (Wearona.com, 2015). In 1976, they opened offices and showrooms in New York Citys Fifth Avenue. The eighties and nineties saw the brand spackle with Hubert de  Givenchy winning several accolades.  

Battle of Mogadishu Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Battle of Mogadishu - Research Paper Example The SNA (Somali National Alliance) formed in August 1992 kicked off as the USC (United Somali Congress) under its leader General Mohamad Farah Aidid. The Somali National Alliance during OGS (Operation Gothic Serpent) comprised of Somali Democratic Movement and the Somali Patriotic Movement. Others comprised of combined Miriflehand Digil clans, the Habr Gedir of the USC (United Somali Congress) commanded by General Aidid, and the recently formed Southern Somali National Movement. After establishment, the Somali National Alliance (SNA) instantly set off an attack against the guerrillas of the clan of Hawadle Hawiye, who coordinated the port area of Mogadishu. Consequently, the militia was chased out of the port area, and Aidid's troops took over.The organizational structure and size of Somali troops is unknown in detail. In all, twenty to forty thousand ordinary militia followers are known to have partaken, nearly altogether of which were from Aidid's SNO (Somali National Alliance), ob taining mostly from the clan of Habar. Since 1993 Habar Gedir had been at conflict with America (Bowden 25). Shortly following the revolution, the alliance split into two factions. Ali Mahdi who later became the president led one of the factions while Mohammed Farah Aidid led the other. In 1991 September, grave fighting started in Mogadishu which lasted in the subsequent months and stretched all over the country. Over twenty thousand individuals were murdered or injured by the culmination of that year. The subsequent inter-clan conflict resulted to agriculture destruction in Somalia, which subsequently led to famishment for lots of its citizens (Bowden 30). The global community embarked on sending food provisions to cease the starvation. Control of food supplies became one of the key sources of power in Somalia. Stolen food was used to fortify the allegiance of clan leaders, and the foodstuff was normally traded with other countries for munitions. Eighty percent of relief food in th e early 1990’s was stolen. These elements steered to further starvation where an assessed three hundred thousand individuals perished and another one million individuals writhed amid 1991 and 1992. In the interim, amid 1991 and 1992 estimates show that above three hundred thousand Somalis perished of undernourishment. United Nations military sent fifty army observers to guard the dissemination of the foodstuff to Somaliain July 1992 in conformity with a resolution indorsed by disparate clan groups (Bowden 45). UNOSOM – I (Operation Provide Relief) officially commenced in August 1992, once United States’ President George H. W. Bush declared that United States army conveyances would back the cosmopolitan United Nations relief force in Somalia. Four hundred and ten C-130s set out to Mombasa in Kenya in Operation Provide Relief. The isolated areas in Somalia survived on Airlifted aid and in return minimizing reliance on truck cavalcades. Only one affiliate (USAFE) o f the 86th Supply Squadron was set out with the ground-backing group (Bowden 56). Forty tons of food and medical supplies delivered byAir Force C-130s in six months to global humanitarian organizations were a means of attempting to aid the over two million starved people in Somalia. This undertaking was unproductive owing to the

Global Warming Video Analysis Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Global Warming Video Analysis - Essay Example Inhofe’s view is that although he initially accepted the understanding that humans were the primary culprits in global climate change (then called global warming), the recent data which has come to light indicates that in fact humans only account for but a very small percentage of total C02 emissions. As such, Inhofe goes on to state that the fact of the matter is that the Kyoto Accords have become a massive liability to the American civilian in the form of costing him/her many thousands of dollars each and every year as a function of the deadweight loss that is attributed to any nation that signs onto the Accords. Furthermore, Inhofe goes on to state that a large number of the scientists who originally bandwagon together and signaled their agreement with the human causation of global warming and supported such a belief have since, almost to the individual, begun to back down and take a more tempered approach to the issue. Although few are coming out denying that humanity has little if anything to do with climate change, few among those initial activists that pushed for the Kyoto Accords are continuing to argue for the same logic that initially persuaded them to become active during that period. An obvious criticism of Inhofe’s point of view is, of course, the fact that even though human beings do not contribute to the lion’s share of CO2 emissions, the fact remains that humanity is responsible for a larger and larger percentage of total CO2 output. As such, it is only logical to assume that the Earth’s ability to convert this back to oxygen as forests continue to be decimated and a higher and higher ratio of industrial nations belch out metric ton after metric ton of CO2 each and every year.  

The Electoral Evolution In The Island Of Mauritius Politics Essay

The Electoral Evolution In The Island Of Mauritius Politics Essay This introductory chapter projects a clear idea about the central issue of concern in the research. The reasons for this particular investigation are also elaborated. A full statement of the research aims and objectives, based on the stated research problem is included. The chapter ends with a brief of the structure and content of the remaining chapters of the dissertation. 1.0 Overview Section 1 of the Constitution of the Republic of Mauritius states that Mauritius shall be a sovereign democratic State which shall be known as the Republic of Mauritius. Section 2 defines that the Constitution is the supreme law of Mauritius and if any other law is inconsistent with this Constitution, that other law shall, to the extent of the inconsistency, be void. Mauritius is a constitutional parliamentary democracy, based on the Westminster model, which consists of the President and the National Assembly. Elected on a First-Pass-the-post system, at an interval of 5 years, during the General Election, the Assembly makes provision for 70 candidates on 20 constituencies. (The Constitution of the Republic of Mauritius) However, this model has been often subject to critics. Michael Duggett (2009), in his thesis about the Westminster Model, states that this model is one-dimensional, simplistic and has weakened as well as privatised. Rod Rhodes (2005) expressed his opinion saying that the model is hollowed-out. This might be a cause which is affecting the level of voter turnout in Mauritius. 1.1 Scope of the study In this study, I propose to study the different causes of abstention at the General Elections and the policies that can be adopted to reduce this phenomenon. This research relates to the island of Mauritius only and therefore does not include Rodrigues and the other outer islands. Research Title The research title is: A study of the causes of voting abstention at the General Election in the Island of Mauritius. Definition of voting abstention Abstention occurs when an eligible voter does not cast a ballot during an election process. It has been observed that many countries are suffering from a high abstention rate due to the citizens low participation during elections. 1.3 Problem statement An  election  is a formal  decision-making process  by which a population chooses an individual to hold public office while vote is a citizens civic duty; however there are some people who abstain from voting for several reasons. Since our representative democratic model relies on citizen participation in elections, less participation means less representation, therefore, less people who decide for everyone else. Falling turnout is often seen as a mark of disengagement, if not of actual disaffection (Norris 1999) The General Elections of year 2005 and 2010 will be used to show the issue; that is, a rise in voting abstention. Table 1 below shows the rate of abstention at the General Election during the year 2005 and 2010. A detailed analysis of the statistics is given in Appendix A: The rate of voting abstention in year 2005 and Appendix B: The rate of voting abstention in year 2010. Table 1: Rate of abstention during year 2005 2010 General Election Year No of Registered electors No of voters % of voters Abstention Rate 2005 793449 644069 81.17 18.83 2010 875356 658441 75.22 24.78 Average Rate 78.05 21.95 Source: Electoral Commissioners Office 1.4 Research Aim The main aim of the study is to analyse the causes which are decreasing the rate of turnout in the Mauritian General Election. 1.5 Research Objectives The objectives of this research are as follows: To calculate the level of abstention and the evolution thereof during the General Election of year 2005 and 2010; To identify the factors which are likely to affect the decision of Mauritians whether to abstain or to vote; To find out the policies that can be adopted to alleviate this problem of voter abstention. 1.6 Structure of the dissertation CHAPTER 1 introduces the issue of voting abstention, the actual electoral system in Mauritius, the right to vote under the Mauritian Constitution, the scope of the study, the research title, the statement of problem is identified, the research aim and the research objectives are pointed out and finally the structure of the dissertation is elaborated in details. CHAPTER 2 focuses on the political system and its evolution since 1810 before adopting the actual system. CHAPTER 3 provides a literature review which analyses the different causes that could affect voters from abstaining. CHAPTER 4 encompasses in detail how the research has been carried out and comprises all relevant information regarding the research methods to meet the objectives of the study. CHAPTER 5 provides a discussion of results and findings from the survey which has been carried out. Each aspect of the questionnaire had been analyzed and interpreted. CHAPER 6 provides a conclusion and some recommendations for the benefit of policy makers and administrators and other people interested in this field, together with a conclusion. 1.7 Chapter Conclusion This first chapter has helped to set out an overview about the topic under investigation. The scope of the study is worked out before giving way to the research aims and objectives. Finally the structuring of the whole report has been elaborated. CHAPTER 2: THE ELECTORAL EVOLUTION IN THE ISLAND OF MAURITIUS 2.0 A Historical Background The Island of Mauritius has been consequently conquered by Arab Sailors, Portuguese, Dutch, French and the British. The Arab sailors were the first who visited the island which was named as Dina Arobi. The Portuguese came in year 1507, followed by the Dutch during the year 1598 who renamed the island as Mauritius. In 1715, the French took control of the island and renamed it Ile de France. Ile de France was formally surrendered to the British, on the 3rd December 1810, where the islands name was reverted to Mauritius. During their abdication, the French was allowed to keep their land and property and to use the French language and law of France in civil and criminal matters on the island. (Prisheela Motee, The library Congress, South Travels, Oracle, Encyclopaedia 2007, Electoral Institute for Sustainable Democracy in Africa) 2.1 Electoral System Mauritius has experienced a number of electoral systems since 1810 before adopting the actual system. The electoral system of Mauritius is based on the majority rule and government stability as it comprises of a fair representation of the population. The choice of government is made by citizens. (Prisheela Motee, The library Congress, South Travels, Oracle, Encyclopaedia 2007, Electoral Institute for Sustainable Democracy in Africa) 2.1.1 One Man One Rule (1810-1886) During 1810-1886, Mauritius was under the British Colonial Rule whereby the governor was enjoying all the law-making and decision-making process over Franco-Mauritian elite. It was a one man one rule policy. In 1825, Mauritius obtained its first Constitution under which a Council of Government, which consisted of 4 top officials: Chief Justice, Chief Secretary, Commander of forces and Collector of Customs, was set up. Later, in 1885, the Constitution was revised and enlarged to make room for elected representatives. The new Council of Government provided 27 members, including 10 elected members, on a restricted franchise. (Prisheela Motee, The library Congress, South Travels, Oracle, Encyclopaedia 2007, Electoral Institute for Sustainable Democracy in Africa) 2.1.2 First-Pass-The-Post-System (FPTP) (1886-1958) Year 1886, welcomes Mauritius first General Election (G.E) under the British Rule. The G.E was limited to wealthy property owners, who constituted only 2 percent of the adult population; that is, out of 365,000 inhabitants, only 12,000 of which all were men, could vote. 2 out of 10 elected members were from Port-Louis and 1 from each 8 districts. Under the 1885 Constitution, Mauritius was divided into 9 constituencies and each constituency elected one representative and Port-Louis, the capital, in relation to highest number of population returned two candidates to the legislative. The elections were held during nine days: from 11-20 January; and were based on the first-past-the-post system. Traces of the 1886 Constitution, can be found in the actual electoral system as the FPTP has been prevailing in Mauritius whereby the candidate receiving the highest number of votes were elected. Due to World War II, G.E could not be held during 1939-1945. The second G.E was then held in 1948, after that the 1886 Constitution was replaced by a new one, which allowed all those above 21 years old who could sign their name in any of the following languages: English, French, Creole, or any Indian languages, to vote through FPTP. Out of 419,000; 72,000 inhabitants, including 12,000 women, were registered electors. Following constitutional conventions held in London in 1955 and 1957, the ministerial system was initiated and G.E was held on 9th March 1959. Voting took place for the first time on the basis of universal adult suffrage and the number of electors rose to 208,684. (Prisheela Motee, The library Congress, South Travels, Oracle, Encyclopaedia 2007, Electoral Institute for Sustainable Democracy in Africa) 2.1.3 London Agreement (1956-1957) Due to Mauritius multi-ethnic society the issue of an ideal electoral system has been a real concern. Since 1956, there was a need for a proper representation of the citizens in the Parliament. In the first London Agreement in 1957, the concept of Proportional Representation (PR) in the system was bluntly rejected. The agreement was supposed to eradicate communal ideology and encourage a system based on political parties not religion. The citizens wanted an ethnic reassurance where PR could prevailed in the National Assembly. The Mauritius Labour Party (MLP) under the successive leaderships of Dr Maurice Cure and Sir Seewoosagur Ramgoolam persistently struggled not only for universal suffrage and responsible Government, but also a ministerial form of Government, a decrease in the number of nominees and an increase in that of elected members, changes in the composition of the Executive Council, the appointment of a Speaker and the majority party leader to be styled Prime Minister. During the 1955 Constitutional Conference which was held in London, the MLP requested some constitutional changes. The London Agreement envisaged nomination of maximum of 12 nominees to ensure fair representation. The right to vote was franchise to both sexes over the age of twenty-one and symbols were introduced to facilitate uneducated voters. The number of electors rose to 207,000 at the 1957 elections. (Prisheela Motee, The library Congress, South Travels, Oracle, Encyclopaedia 2007, Electoral Institute for Sustainable Democr acy in Africa) 2.1.4 Trustram-Eve Recommendations (1957) In year 1957, Sir Malcolm Trustram Eve; member of the London Agreement, recommended a 40 single-member constituency system along with the FPTP system. This implies that there is no need for a majority overall to win over a seat. The year 1957 had launched the Ministerial system where the elected candidates were able to decide upon policy issues in many areas. The Ministerial system comprised of nine ministers out of whom six were elected and three nominated. Despite the fact that it was not a fully elected body, the island had its first representative body and the Executive Council was chaired by the Governor. Trustrams recommendation was to ensure ethnic and communal representation in the legislative. The nominees are the ancestors of the best loser system. In 1964, in view of not upsetting the population, the governors did not increase the number of nominees. (Prisheela Motee, The library Congress, South Travels, Oracle, Encyclopaedia 2007, Electoral Institute for Sustainable Democracy in Africa) 2.1.5 Banwell Report (1966) The Banwell Report was initially based on the Trustrams-Eve recommendations. Part of Mauritius actual electoral system is based on Banwell Recommendations. Banwell Commission was set up after the proposals made for an electoral system, at the Lancaster House Conference of September 1965, failed. Banwell then proposed the followings: 20 constituencies returning 3 members in Mauritius and 2 members in Rodrigues. A division of the population for electoral law purposes: Hindu, Muslin, Chinese and the General Population. Use of FPTP in theory and the three pass the post in practice. 5 constant best loser seats to be filled as soon as results of general election are official so as to overcome the problem of under representation. Candidates chosen as best losers should secure largest number of votes among the defeated candidates belonging to the under-represented community and 10% of the general votes. Any party receiving more than 25% of the total vote and less than 25% seats in Parliament would be reallocated to bring its share to 25%. The last proposal was rejected by the MLP, then Stonehouse; MLPs friend, was called as a negotiator. (Prisheela Motee, The library Congress, South Travels, Oracle, Encyclopaedia 2007, Electoral Institute for Sustainable Democracy in Africa) 2.1.5.1 Stonehouse Modifications Stonehouse modified the 5 constant correctives to the 8 best loser votes. The variable correctives and the 10% votes were also rejected. The first 4 best losers seats were to be allocated to parties belonging to under presented communities irrespective to party affiliation .The community for the first 4 best losers is obtained by dividing the population of each of the communities by number of seats obtained by that community in general election plus one. The second 4 best losers were allocated on party and community basis. (Prisheela Motee, The library Congress, South Travels, Oracle, Encyclopaedia 2007, Electoral Institute for Sustainable Democracy in Africa) 2.1.5.2 The final proposal and actual electoral system The final proposal and the actual electoral system is based on Banwell recommendations and modified by Stonehouse. There are 70 members in the parliament ,60 out of the 70 are directly elected through FPTP in 20 constituencies with returning 3 candidates each and Rodrigues 2 candidates as shown in the table below. The remaining 8 are the best losers chosen by the Electoral Supervisory Commission immediately after results of general elections. This structure has been basically maintained up to now. (Prisheela Motee, The library Congress, South Travels, Oracle, Encyclopaedia 2007, Electoral Institute for Sustainable Democracy in Africa) 2.1.6 Independence The 1967 election brought a milestone in the history of Mauritius. About 90% of the electorate voted. PMSD fought against independence while MLP fought for independence. PMSD was defeated and MLP won 39 seats by obtaining 54% of the national votes. Mauritius acceded to the status of independence on the 12th March 1968. The first parliamentary election which took place on the 20th December 1976 amended the right to vote. Those aged 18 and above could vote. Out of 462,034, 170,000 were new eligible voters. The first general election after independence was an electoral victory. It was the first time that a single party alliance; Mauritian Militant Movement (MMM) and Parti Socialiste Mauricien (PSM), won all 60 seats. Subsequently, the contribution was altered to guarantee that legislation elections occur every five years. Parliamentary by-elections were also reinstated. (Prisheela Motee, The library Congress, South Travels, Oracle, Encyclopaedia 2007, Electoral institute for sustainable democracy in Africa) 2.1.7 Westminster Model The Constitution of Mauritius provides for the Parliament of Mauritius to consist of the President and the National Assembly. The Parliament of Mauritius is modeled after the Westminster system of parliamentary democracy, where Members of Parliament are voted in at regular general elections, on the basis of a first past the post system. (Official site of the Republic of Mauritius-The Parliament) The Westminster System guarantees the separation of the legislative, executive and judicial powers. Political power rests on the Prime Minister and the cabinet. Sixty-two members of Parliament are elected every five years by universal adult suffrage and all major political parties are represented in Parliament.   The Legislative Assembly became the National Assembly. The Governor General was replaced by the President of the Republic. The latter is elected by the legislative upon the recommendation of the Prime Minister. (Dukhira, 2002) CHAPTER 3: REVIEW OF LITERATURE 3.0 Introduction A vote is an electorates act of voting, whereby voting is the civic duty of every citizen. It is the starting and the ending point of every democracy. In general, the voting system allows electors to select a candidate or a party. The citizens participation in election is important for democracy. If citizens do not have a hand in political things (especially elections) democracy is exposed to weakening risks. (Pasquino, 1983). Citizens derive a direct benefit from fulfilling this duty. However, it is indeed serious because some citizen abstains from their civic duty. The decrease in the rate of voter turnout has been constantly observed. It is contended that voter turnout and voter abstention are closely related to one-another. These two factors will be used interchangeably throughout this study but as opposites of each other. Poole and Rosenthal (1997) argue that the decision to vote or to abstain can be formulated with the equation: R=P (B)-C+D where R is the net reward from voting, B is the material benefit brought about by voting, P is the probability that ones vote makes a difference, C is the cost associated with voting, and D is the fixed benefit of voting. Electors will abstain if the perceived benefits of abstention will exceed the perceived costs. This can be formulated by an equation: R= (P (B))-(C+D))>0. On the other hand, Corey Brettschneider (2007) claimed that: mutual respect, equality or autonomy, are the core substantive values associated to the right to vote. These values should make the right to vote worth being enjoyable and exercisable, rather than the other way round. Riker and Ordeshook (1968) introduced the citizen duty notion to explain the issue of voter turnout. This literature review addresses the causes, factors leading to a decrease of voter turnout and an increase in voting abstention. 3.1 Voter Abstention Abstention occurs when an eligible voter does not cast a ballot during an election process. It has been observed that many countries are suffering from a high abstention rate due to the citizens low participation during elections. Abstention is a real concern and a challenge for politicians, who must persuade the public of the need to vote, according to Seddik Chihas of the National Democratic Rally (RND). (Ademe Amine, 2012). Abstention shall not be compared with blank vote where an eligible voter purposely spoils a vote by marking it wrongly or by marking anything at all, whereby abstention is when the electorate does not vote at all. 3.1.1 Un-informed electors According to Arianna Degans and Antonio Merlos study in 2004, who votes and for who people vote determine the outcome of the elections. It is of high importance for candidates during elections to ensure the participation of their citizens and as well as their voting decisions. Abstention occurs when there is a lack of information about the candidates, (Arianna Degan and Antonio Merlo, 2004), who make the wrong decision or the wrong choice. This can be costly to the elections where a wrong candidate might be elected. Some electors might also feel unmotivated to vote due to a feeling of uncertainty towards candidates but when a citizen is well informed about his civic duty and the electoral candidates, he will definitely participate during elections and vote for the right candidate. 3.2 Voter Turnout Voter turnout is the percentage of eligible voters who cast a ballot in an election. Eligible voters shall not be compared with the total adult population because some adults are not eligible to vote. Voter turnout is an essential quality of fair election and is considered to be a necessary factor for a healthy democracy. Low turnout is generally accredited to disengagement from the system because of perceived efficacy of voting in altering policy decisions. Consequently established democracies with free elections usually have higher turnout than other states. Understanding voter turnout Voting turnout has often been used to judge the evolution of democratic countries, (Scot and Barbara, 2005). The act of voting depicts the preference of the citizens as this show the extent to which the citizens are actually interested in being represented.(Fair Vote Canada; Lijphart, 1996) However, low level of participation is being noticed on behalf of eligible voters. This is due to disenchantment, indifference, or contentment. As such a poll with low turnout is not reliable, because it does not show what the whole country wants; it shows only part of the citizens will. For example, an elector may have abstained from voting because her favourite party had no chances of attaining representation. Different countries have very different average voter turnouts. Low turnout can be expressed differently. For example, in developed countries, the young and the poor are the abstainers. However, India which comprises of an electorate of more than 670 million people, the contrary is found. The poor, who comprises of the majority of the demographic, tend to vote more than the rich and the middle- class, and turnout is higher in rural areas than in urban areas ( D.Gupta, 2004) 3.2.2 Socio- economic factors Citizens participate politically when their level of wealth and education increases because they are more informed and has a feeling of efficacy. This leads to a higher political participation (Lijphart, 1997). According to Ioannis and Phil (2005), sociologist argues that the political behaviour, the identification with a partys values and peoples interest to vote are affected by the socio.economic characteristics. Turnout is higher among those with higher income, those of higher education, white -collar workers, whites, men, middle-aged , older voters, those with closer community ties, those married and the members of organizations. In developing countries, to maintain security and economic development in case when things are bad, citizens tend to vote in great numbers (Radcliff 1992; Fornos et al.2004) Cultural Factor The educational level and the wealth of the country affect turnout but these are not reliable measures as in countries like Europe, in spite of the fact that it is wealthy and have a high rate of literacy, the level of turnout is found to be low. Despite the fact, that countries, like those in Europe and Latin America have a newer democracy, they do not have the cultural habit of voting. The eligible voters do not have the sense of civic duty, which takes time and certain social conditions to develop. These social conditions developed by G. Bingham Powell are: trust in government, the degree of partisanship among the population, interest in politics, and belief in the efficiency of voting. Political Factor Crewe et al. (1992) traced four factors associated with turnout irregularity: being young, having recently moved home, the type of housing tenure, and, marital status(single or divorced). These factors are inter-correlated but they have an independent effect on turnout. According to Crewe et al. (1992), isolation from personal and national networks resulted in a lack of political information or pressure to vote, thus, lowering turnout due to a lack of motivation. Weak or absent party emerged as another important source of irregular voting (Crewe et al, 1992). According to their study, the identification of age and strength are inter-dependently related to voter turnout. A lack in the government performance also carries a negative impact upon turnout. Strong political competition and ideological cleavages between parties tend to increase turnout (Dalton, 1988). Institutional Factor Institutional factors have a significant impact on voter turnout. These variables are classified into three categories: Electoral rules, Perception of the effectiveness of governing institutions, Mobilization. Electoral rules Variables in electoral rules include compulsory voting, registration rules and voting age. Compulsory voting Compulsory voting increases turnout because once voting is made mandatory, people follow the rule irrespective of the punitive sanctions for non-voting (Lijphart 1997). However, in Venezuela and the Netherlands compulsory voting has been rescinded, due to a decrease in turnout. On the other hand, Paraguay having a compulsory voting system imposes payment of a fine and ineligibility for elective office for a prescribed period. Colombia and Nicaragua also have compulsory voting. In Greece voting is compulsory; however there are practically no sanctions for those who do not vote. In Belgium voting is compulsory, too, but not strongly enforced. Registration rules Automatic and compulsory registration often leads to a low turnout because even those who are not eligible, as stated below in the case study: The Republic of Mauritius: Disqualified voters, are on the registration list which gives false survey. Conversely, an election where registration is voluntary or requires a personal initiative ought to be associated with higher voter turnout, because the institutional obstacle of registration has already been surmounted. (Payne et al, 2002) Voting age Voting age has been found to be positively associated to voting turnout as younger citizens are less exposed to politics (Wolfinger and Rosenstone, 1980) and are less likely to vote as older voters. Compared to the youths, the older generations tend to have the sense of civic duty. Older people vote more than youths. The act of voting is also seen as part of the young people coming-of-age ritual. 3.2.5.2 Perception of the effectiveness of governing institutions Variables in the governing effectiveness category include the number of political parties, the relative power of the lower house, federalism or the centralization of the government, and concurrent elections. These variables may affect voters perceptions of the effectiveness or the policy of the powers of the elected officials. The number of political parties Jackman (1987) argues that multi parties lead to coalition building to policy ambiguity and compromise. It is expected to reduce the probability of legislative majorities and worsen executive legislative cooperation which may lead to rendering the electoral process less consequential. The relative power of the lower house This unicameral legislature has to adopt the majoritarian policy to be more effective. This is supposed to render voting to be more meaningful. The centralization of the government Centralized government is more effective, efficient and decisive. Jones (1997) argues that federal political arrangements create new electoral dynamics. The federalism variable is ought to capture longer ballots, which are believed to reduce turnout and the presence of unique local election laws that may deter voting. Concurrent elections Concurrent election means the instances when presidential and legislative elections are held at the same time. Concurrent election is supposed to increase voter turnout as it is expected to contribute to the perception that the election is more relevant. 3.2.5.3 Mobilization Institutional variables in the mobilization category include district magnitude and electoral disproportionality. District magnitude As district magnitude increases political parties have more incentives to retain all seats found in a particular district (Powell, 1986). With a smaller pool of candidates or political parties competing for votes in the district, the distribution of patronage will be more visible and more certain which is ought to result in greater voter mobilization. Electoral disproportionality Electoral disproportionality occurs when parties receive electoral support that does not translate into representation in the legislature in which case, votes have been wasted (Burnham 1987). Wasted votes are found to be associated negatively with voting turnout as parties have less of an incentive to turn out to vote. 3.2.5.4 Salience Mark. N. Franklin (1997) argues that salience is the effect of a vote of an eligible voter over a country. Salient issues are politically important as public opinions are likely to structure party support and voting behaviour and form the subject of political debate. Voters perceptions of fairness impact on salience. Citizens will not cast any ballot if they feel that the election is not worthy, corrupted and determined by fraud thus relating to low voter turnout. Gender Abstention For ages, gender inequality has been prevailing. Women were considered to be inferior to men. Women were confined in a more private sphere leaving men in a public one, especially in politics due to a combination of psychological and sociological causes. If we refer to classical literature, we shall see how women were kept away from the social aspect of life. Women roles in the society were to be a mother, a wife, a sister or a friend. This practice has prevailed for years. There is only a minority of women who participates in the society. However an analysis at the end of 90s in 19 centuries (Norris et al, 2003) confirmed that Norway had a female participation rate significantly higher than men, in Germany, Great Britain and Spain men and women abstention rates were very close, and in all countries there was an invasion in the youngest ages, female children vote more than their mothers. Voter Fatigue Voter fatigue tends to lower turnout. This occurs when participants do not find any interest to cast a ballot. They get bored and reject participation. This may be due to frequent election. Eileen Park, a journalist, reported on 31 March 2012 that voter fatigue might be a cause to influence the public not to vote though being at the eve of the GOP (Grand Old Party) Presidential Election in Wisconsin. The public were no more motivated to vote. Voter Suppression Voter suppression is used as a stratagem to influence the outcome of an election by

Allen Ginsberg Essay -- Biography Biographies Essays

Allen Ginsberg Allen Ginsberg "saw the best minds of his generation destroyed by madness" ("Howl"). He struggled through family conflicts and homosexuality throughout his adolescence, and then he went on to become one of the most read poets of his time. Allen was a strong man who never allowed anything get the best of him, including fear. He made a list of all his fears, large and small, and then worked his way through them, ridding himself of one fear after another (Mitchell 30). His influence on everyone he came in contact with carries on even after his death, and many writers dedicate their time to documenting his life as it affected them. Readers of his poetry say he has "a delicate lyrical style reminiscent of certain seventeenth century poets" (Brinnin 49). Allen Ginsberg, father of the beat generation, was the embodiment of the ideals of personal freedom, nonconformity, and the search for enlightenment. Irwin Allen Ginsberg was born on June 3, 1926 in Newark, New Jersey, and soon after moved to Paterson, New Jersey ("Modern American Poetry"). He was his parent's second child, preceded by one brother, Eugene, who was named after a speaker his father was impressed with as a young child (Miles 30). His father, Louis Ginsberg, was a high school teacher and a moderate Jew Socialist, and Naomi, his mother, was a "radical communist and irrepressible nudist who went tragically insane during early adulthood" ("Literary Kicks"). Naomi grew up speaking Yiddish and learned to play the mandolin when she was young. She went to Barringer high school, which is where she met Louis Ginsberg in 1912, when they were both only seventeen (Miles 12). Often Naomi, who also suffered through recurrent epileptic seizures and a severe form of... ...shes it. Works Cited "Allen Ginsberg." Literary Kicks. Feb 2002. http://www.charm.net/~brooklyn/people/allenginsberg.html. Brinnin, John Malcolm and Bill Read ed. Twentieth Century Poet: American and British (1900-1970). St. Louis: McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1970. Charters, Ann. "Allen Ginsberg's Life." Modern American Poets. Feb. 2002. http://www.english.uiuc.edu/maps/poets/g_1/ginsberg/life.htm. Ginsberg, Allen. "Howl." March 2000. http://www.charm.net/~brooklyn/poems/howl.html. Kramer, Jane. Allen Ginsberg in America. New York: Fromm International Pub., 1997. Miles, Barry. Ginsberg: A Biography. New York: Simon and Schuster, 1989. Mitchell, Adrian. "The Man Who Set Me on Fire." New Statesman April 1997: 30(2) Mitgang, Herbert. Dangerous Dossiers: Exposing the Secret War Against America's Greatest Authors. New York: D.I. Fine, 1988.